Tag: Western

Attachment Styles & Culture: Are You Secure?

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Attachment styles are psychological frameworks that describe how we form and maintain emotional bonds with others, particularly in close relationships. 

These styles are typically developed in early childhood through interactions with caregivers and can significantly influence how we relate to others throughout our lives. 

A 1986 study by Takahashi found that, when using Western attachment style classifications, double the number of Japanese infants were categorized as insecure-resistant when compared with American babies. 

This raises an important question: Are Japanese infants more prone to forming unhealthy attachments, or is the classification system skewed by ethnocentricity?

This issue highlights the need to understand cultural variations in attachment and the complexities involved in studying attachment across different cultures.

Attachment Varies by Culture

Attachment theory in psychology investigates whether attachment styles differ based on cultural practices or whether they are universal. 

According to Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment, attachment is an inherent mechanism that ensures infants bond with their caregivers for survival. 

He argued that this attachment serves as a template, or “internal working model,” for all future relationships.

Bowlby’s theory suggests that the drive to develop a secure attachment is a biological, universal trait found in all human infants.

However, many scholars have criticized Bowlby for failing to consider cultural variations in child-rearing practices. 

These cultural differences can significantly influence attachment styles, suggesting that attachment may not be as biologically determined as Bowlby proposed. 

In cultures where different social norms around caregiving exist, attachment behaviors may reflect those norms rather than innate patterns. 

For instance, some cultures might encourage more physical closeness or independence, which could lead to different attachment behaviors.

Assessing Attachment

Mary Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” is the primary method for assessing attachment styles in infants. 

In this procedure, an infant’s behavior is observed during a series of interactions, such as when a caregiver exits the room, when the infant is left with a stranger, and when the caregiver returns. 

Based on their responses, infants are classified into three categories: secure, insecure-avoidant, or insecure-resistant. 

While the Strange Situation has been extensively used in the U.S. and Europe, it was developed based on middle-class, Western family dynamics, which may not capture the nuances of attachment in non-Western cultures. 

For instance, behaviors classified as insecure-resistant in Japan, such as clinging to a parent, might simply reflect cultural norms of close physical proximity between mother and child.

Cross-Cultural Studies

To explore the validity of Bowlby’s claims, studies have been conducted to compare attachment styles across cultures. 

Cultural variations in attachment refer to differences in social norms around caregiving and how these influence attachment styles. 

These variations can challenge the idea that all infants form attachments in the same way. 

For example, research by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg compared attachment styles across eight countries, showing significant cross-cultural differences. 

While American infants predominantly exhibited secure attachments (as defined by Western standards), other cultures displayed different attachment patterns without negative consequences for children’s emotional development.

Cultural variations in attachment challenge the assumption that attachment styles are universal. 

We’ll explore this further next week.

Decoding Smiles: How Culture Influences the Perception of :)

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Frank Sinatra sang, “When you’re smilin’, the whole world smiles with you.”

But that may not be the case.

Some cultures are much more openly smiley than others. 

And this is all due to norms, behaviors, and how smiling is viewed in society.

Smiling is often associated with positive traits such as happiness, attractiveness, competence, and friendliness.

This perception is widely accepted, especially in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies, where most psychological research is conducted. 

However, the influence of culture on the social perception of nonverbal behavior, including smiling, is not well-understood. 

Recent research reveals that cultural context can significantly alter how smiling individuals are perceived.

Cultural Differences in Smiling Perception

In cultures with low scores on the GLOBE’s uncertainty avoidance dimension, a smiling person may be judged as less intelligent compared to a non-smiling person. 

This finding challenges the assumption that smiling universally conveys positive attributes. 

Additionally, societal corruption levels can undermine the prosocial perception of smiling. 

In societies with high corruption indicators, trust toward smiling individuals diminishes. 

This suggests that in some cultural contexts, smiling can have negative associations.

Gender Roles and Smile Perception

The study also highlights the role of gender in the social perception of smiles. 

Female assessors are more likely than male assessors to attribute intelligence and honesty to smiling individuals. 

Furthermore, the gender of the person being assessed influences the perception of honesty, but only for non-smiling targets. 

These gender-based differences in smile perception do not affect the cultural variations in how smiles are interpreted, which is the primary focus of the study.

Practical Implications

This cross-cultural study sheds light on the complex and varied interpretations of smiling. 

While smiling is generally perceived favorably, in some cultures, a smiling individual may be judged as less intelligent than when displaying a neutral expression. 

In uncertain social conditions, expressing certainty through smiling may not effectively signal intelligence.

Similarly, in untrustworthy environments, displaying unconditional trust through smiling can be risky.

This has practical implications, particularly in the context of globalization and job applications. 

For instance, in countries where photographs are commonly included in CVs, understanding whether a smile conveys competence and trustworthiness or negative traits can be crucial for international applicants.

As with our look at eye contact and culture in last week’s blog, this research advances the theory of nonverbal behavior by highlighting how cultural dimensions influence the perception of smiles. 

It underscores the importance of considering cultural frameworks in understanding nonverbal communication and reveals that the generally positive perception of smiling can have unexpected negative implications in certain cultural contexts.

The Universal Language of Music: A Study of Shared & Divergent Emotions Across Cultures

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Music holds a unique position in the human experience.

It transcends language and culture to evoke emotions that resonate deep within us. 

A recent study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences examined music’s impact on our bodies and emotions and investigated its universal appeal and divergence across different cultures.

Mapping Sensations Across Borders

Music has long been recognized for its ability to elicit emotion and bodily responses, from foot tapping to goosebumps. 

But what exactly drives these sensations, and are they consistent across cultures? 

Drawing participants from both Western and East Asian cultures, the study included a range of musical preferences and sensitivities. 

By analyzing responses to a curated selection of songs, researchers sought to uncover patterns in bodily sensations and emotional experiences evoked by different types of music.

The study revealed striking similarities as well as divergent experiences in the way individuals from distinct cultural backgrounds responded to music. 

Despite differences in musical preferences and exposure, participants reported consistent emotional experiences and bodily sensations across various genres and styles of music.

Amidst this harmony of emotions, a notable discrepancy emerged concerning familiarity with the music.

As one might expect, Western participants exhibited a greater familiarity with Western songs, whereas East Asian participants demonstrated a stronger connection to music from their own cultural sphere, reflecting the influence of exposure and upbringing on musical preferences.

Visualizing Musical Effects

Through the use of bodily sensation maps (BSMs), researchers were able to visualize how different musical attributes, such as tempo, rhythm, and melody, influenced participants’ subjective experiences. 

Sad or tender melodies elicited sensations primarily in the head and chest regions, with Western participants particularly experiencing the haunting effects of melancholic tunes in their gut. 

Conversely, danceable and joyful melodies induced sensations distributed across the body, with a concentration of effects in the limbs, reflecting the infectious energy of upbeat rhythms.

Notably, music categorized as aggressive triggered sensations pervading the entire body, with a heightened intensity in the head region. 

This visceral response underscores the profound impact of music on our physiological state, eliciting a holistic bodily experience that mirrors the emotional intensity of the composition.

East Asian participants exhibited more consistent activation in the head, legs, and arms across different musical categories, suggesting a nuanced sensitivity to the varied aspects of music. 

Conversely, Western participants reported a more uniform sensation concentrated in the chest area, particularly pronounced in response to melancholic or tender melodies, reflecting cultural differences in emotional expression and bodily awareness.

Despite these variations, the study revealed a remarkable convergence in the association between musical features and emotional dimensions across cultures. 

Musical attributes such as slight harmonic changes, low roughness, and clear keys were consistently linked to emotions of tenderness and sadness, while complex rhythms and unclear keys evoked feelings of scariness or aggressiveness. 

Implications and Future Directions

Whether it’s Beethoven’s symphonies or traditional Chinese melodies, the language of music speaks to us all in ways that defy cultural divides.

These findings not only underscore the universal language of music but also highlight its profound impact on our emotional and physical well-being. 

By understanding the connection between music, emotions, and bodily sensations, we can gain deeper insights into the human experience and potentially utilize the therapeutic power of music to promote healing and connection across communities.

How Much Does Culture Influence Gender Stereotypes

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Does culture influence the way that we perceive gender?

Or are masculine and feminine gender roles and stereotypes universal?

Three compelling studies unveil the influence of cultural values on the contents of these stereotypes, shedding light on the dynamic interplay between society and our perceptions of gender.

Study 1: Women as Interdependent, Men as Independent

At first glance, the authors of Study 1 expected two straightforward main effects. 

  • 1) East Asians would be perceived as more interdependent compared to their Western counterparts. 
  • 2) Within each culture, men would be seen as more independent than women—a pattern deeply entrenched in our societal fabric. 

Study 1 begins with Americans, who perceive men as less interdependent than women. 

But in Korea, the script actually flips, defying the “universal” gender stereotype of male independence. 

Koreans, in their unique cultural lens, perceive men as more interdependent than women, revealing the nuance between cultural values and gender perceptions.

As it turns out, men embody the traits that hold sway in their respective societies.

Study 2: Bicultural Norms Align According to Language

Study 2 introduces us to the world of bicultural Korean Americans, navigating the transition between languages and cultural frames. 

As they complete surveys, the language they use becomes a catalyst for transformation. 

In English, men are perceived as less interdependent, aligning with American cultural norms. 

However, in Korean, men are seen as more interdependent, mirroring the values of their Korean heritage.

Study 3: Gender Stereotypes Morph According to Dominant Cultural Preferences

Study 3 sees American college students take center stage. 

Ambitiousness and sociability emerge as focal points, representing the cultural values cherished at their respective universities. 

These values shape perceptions of a male student. 

Whatever trait is hailed as the pinnacle of cultural importance becomes the beacon through which his character is judged. 

Culture, like a master sculptor, molds the contents of gender stereotypes with a deft hand.

Conclusion

These studies ignite a flame of understanding, illuminating the dialogue between culture and gender perceptions. 

They reveal the malleability of stereotypes, challenged by the diverse tapestry of human experiences shaped by culture. 

As we continue to place gender and culture, we delve deeper into the realm of societal influence, recognizing the power cultural values hold in shaping our perceptions of masculinity and femininity.

Emotions & Your Environment: Are You From a High or Low Arousal Culture?

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When you’re excited, how do you express it?

Do you squeal aloud with glee? Do your eyebrows reach your hairline?

Or do you suppress your zeal, maintaining a cool exterior?

Last week, we talked about societal emotional environments.

This is the “emotional climate of a society” or the degree to which positive and negative emotions are expressed.

Today, we’ll look at an academic paper discussing the emotional arousal level of different cultures – specifically, Western or individualist culture versus Eastern or collectivist culture.

The paper looks at actual and ideal emotions in a society – ideal being which emotions are most valued.

Are Emotions Biological?

Some researchers view emotion as universal and biologically based.

But culture certainly determines the degree to which one feels comfortable expressing emotion.

The study explains,

“Culture constrains how emotions are felt and expressed in a given cultural context. It shapes the ways people should feel in certain situations and the ways people should express their emotions.”

Valence and Arousal

Studies on this topic often define emotional expression in two dimensions: valence and arousal.

These bipolar dimensions – pleasure-displeasure (valence) and activation-deactivation (degree of arousal) – make up the affective state.

Both of these dimensions affect brain activity and cognitive behaviors.

High Arousal and Low Arousal

There are high and low arousal emotions.

High arousal emotions induce action, energy, and mobilization. 

Here are some examples of high arousal emotions:

  • Anger
  • Fear
  • Excitement
  • Happiness
  • Hostility
  • Irritation
  • Alarm

Low arousal emotions induce rest and inaction.

Here are some examples of low arousal emotions:

  • Boredom
  • Calm/Serenity
  • Sadness
  • Tiredness
  • Depression
  • Relaxation
  • Helplessness
  • Peacefulness

As you can see, the difference in the intensity of feeling of each of these categories is vast.

Cultural Differences Determine Outcome

As we talked a little about last week, Eastern or collectivist cultures value low arousal emotions, while Western or individualist cultures value high arousal emotions.

This relates to cultural values.

In an individualist culture, a desire to influence others is a part of the social fabric.

High arousal emotions – which prompt action – are more effective in achieving influence.

In a collectivist culture, conforming to the group is ideal.

You can see why low arousal emotions would be preferred in this case.

Defining Emotion

The definition of emotions also differs across cultures.

For instance, happiness in China would be reflected in reservation and solemnity, while in America it would be reflected in exuberance. 

Thus, the arousal state of happiness is high in America and low in China.

These differences in valued emotions inspire preferred activities.

Because Westerners value high arousal emotions, they will participate in activities that elicit these emotions – like enthusiasm or excitement.

Think thrill-seeking activities, like mountain climbing or skydiving.

This goes to show that values and societal ideals drive everything from behavior to emotional expression even to our favorite hobbies.

10 Cultural Universals: The Role of Family in Culture

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We’ve talked about geography and language and their relationship with culture over the past couple weeks.

Family is the third universal in our ten-part series.

Whether you’re from a culture which is centered around a nuclear family or one that embraces an extended family model, the family unit is an integral part of your cultural and your personal development.

This is why family dynamics are a common focus of cultural studies. From family member roles to labor division to rites of passage, culture begins at home and the family is its core.

Collectivist vs. Individualist

While there are obviously many family structures across cultures, let’s focus this discussion on two main distinctions: collectivist and individualist cultures.

One of the main ways in which these groups differ is in their family dynamics. Individuality is obviously stressed in individualist cultures, while interdependence and conformity are valued by collectivist cultures. And these dynamics are prevail within the family.

As Marcia Carteret, M. Ed., writes in “Cultural Differences in Family Dynamics”:

“Individualistic cultures stress self-reliance, decision-making based on individual needs, and the right to a private life. In collectivist cultures absolute loyalty is expected to one’s immediate and extended family/tribe.”

In other words, collectivist cultures put the needs of the family/group (the collective) before individual needs.

Nuclear vs. Extended

In examining the prevalence of nuclear and extended families in developing and developed countries, the un.org writes:

“The presence of two adult members per household in developed countries is an indication of the predominance of the nuclear type of family; on the other hand, the presence of more than two or three adult members in a household in developing countries indicates prevalence of an extended type of family or of a nuclear family with adult children present.”

The nuclear family is composed of parents and their children. This model is commonly followed by Western cultures and developed countries. Children are often raised to become independent and move out on their own when they reach adulthood.

The extended family model is often found in collectivist cultures and developing countries in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, as well as in Hispanic and American Indian cultures. In this model, the extended family – including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins – are an intimate part of the familial network.

Whereas individualist cultures prize privacy and independence, with the nuclear family living separately from the extended family, collectivist cultures often share the household across generations. In a multi-generational household, you might find three or more generations cohabitating. Grandparents might live with their adult children and grandchildren.

In some of these households, the eldest son brings his new wife to live with his parents at home. The daughter-in-law submits to the mother-in-law.

“Relatives” unrelated by blood may even play a significant role in the family, with tribal leaders being consultive beings in American Indian families and godparents serving this role in Hispanic families.

Next week, we’ll talk more extensively about familial roles and rites of passage across cultures.