Tag: culture

Giving Thanks to Cultural Diversity: Thanksgivings Around the World

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Many across the world are familiar with American Thanksgiving, thanks largely in part to the media and commercialism.

But it may surprise Americans to know that not only does Canadian Thanksgiving predate American Thanksgiving by 40 years, but many other cultures around the world celebrate their own Thanksgivings in appreciation of different historical events in their countries.

Here are three Thanksgivings from around the world.

Canada

As mentioned, Canada’s inaugural Thanksgiving celebration predates that of America by over four decades.

Martin Frobisher, the English navigator, led an expedition in 1578 that conducted a gratitude ceremony in present-day Nunavut, expressing thanks for delivering their fleet to safety. 

This event is recognized as the first Thanksgiving celebration in North America, even though the indigenous peoples of Canada, known as First Nations, and Native Americans had been observing harvest festivals long before the arrival of Europeans. 

During the Revolutionary War, Loyalists who migrated to Canada brought with them American traditions, including the one of turkey.

Establishing a national Thanksgiving Day in 1879, Canada now celebrates Thanksgiving on the second Monday in October. 

Like their southern neighbor, Canadian Thanksgiving traditions involve football and consuming a large spread with family.

Japan

Japan‘s version of Thanksgiving, known as Kinro Kansha no Hi (Labor Thanksgiving Day), has its origins in the ancient Niinamesai rice harvest festival, dating back to the seventh century A.D. 

The festival is celebrated on November 23, and as a “Labor Thanksgiving Day,” it’s viewed as a tribute to the rights of Japanese workers.

Unlike the American holiday, this one is centered around the values of community involvement and hard work. 

Labor organizations hold events, and children often make thank-you cards for essential workers, like garbage collectors, firefighters, and policemen.

Germany

Erntedankfest – or the “harvest festival of thanks” – is the German counterpart to Thanksgiving.

This religious observance commonly occurs on the first Sunday in October.

It is celebrated differently in rural areas versus urban ones. 

Small towns tend to embrace the literal essence of the harvest festival, while city churches in Germany express gratitude for the prosperity experienced by their congregations throughout the year.

Typically, Erntedankfest involves a church procession, carrying an Erntekrone – or a “harvest crown” of grains, fruit, and flowers. 

The celebration involves indulging in hearty dishes like der Kapaun (castrated roosters) and die Masthühnchen (fattened-up chickens). 

This blend of religious and cultural traditions reflects a unique German approach to giving thanks during the harvest season.

As you can see, Thanksgiving may be celebrated around the world for different reasons and events, but it seems to me that humans are universal in wanting to share in gratitude.

Diversity is an Asset: How Tightness/Looseness of Culture Impacts Innovation

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Do you feel more creative when you are given rules to follow or no rules at all?

Does freedom inspire or limit you?

Today, we’ll delve into a study regarding the degree of tightness and looseness in cultures and how that impacts innovation.

But first, let’s identify what tightness/looseness in culture means.

Defining Tightness/Looseness

As you may have guessed, the “tightness” or “looseness” of a culture is related to its hierarchical structures and social norms.

Witkin and Berry define it as the

“degree of hierarchical structure among sociocultural elements in a society”

While Gelfand, Nishii, & Raver define it as

“the strength of social norms and degree of sanctioning within societies.”

In other words, loose cultures allow flexible and informal social norms, while tight cultures maintain order, coordination, and control. 

Why is Impact Innovation?

For decades, scholars in management and economics have examined the connections between innovativeness and economic performance, often concentrating on conventional “hard factors” such as research and development investments or educational initiatives. 

However, in an era of globalization where cultural dynamics play an increasingly crucial role, the impact of cultural characteristics on innovativeness has been relatively overlooked. 

In this study, researchers employ various econometric models to examine the associations between cultural tightness and looseness and national innovativeness.

The Study

In line with the theoretical framework, researchers used the Global Innovation Index and the rank cultural tightness–looseness combination index.

They identified a significant positive association between cultural looseness, as measured by the Global Innovation Index (Uz (2015a)), and national innovativeness. 

However, this correlation did not hold when using data provided by Gelfand et al. (2011a). 

Researchers concluded that the higher number of surveyed countries, larger sample sizes, and a focus on specific tolerance in Uz’s (2015a) study provide a more comprehensive and accurate representation of cultural tightness-looseness, enhancing the reliability of estimation models.

Diversity is an Asset

The study’s interpretation of the results reveals a significant positive connection between innovativeness and cultural looseness when tightness-looseness is measured as a spread of norms. 

This suggests that societal pluralism and diversity of opinions contribute to innovativeness. 

However, cultural looseness does not equate to high individual tolerance in general; rather, it signifies the endurance of varying degrees of specific tolerance of controversial issues within an open society.

These findings align with studies at different levels, indicating that diversity, when managed constructively, serves as an asset for innovativeness rather than an obstacle. 

This study emphasizes the importance of balancing diversity with participatory safety to enhance team identity and foster creativity. 

The cultural values of a society, as reflected in its approach to innovation, play a crucial role in shaping its economic and creative landscape. 

Recognizing the paradoxical nature of cultural looseness—simultaneously allowing individual freedom and embracing culture-specific norms—can provide valuable insights into fostering societal innovativeness.

Consumers & Culture: How Can Cultural Values Be Utilized To Encourage Ethical Consumption?

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Do you patronize companies whose ethical values mirror your own?

Do you consider environmental impact when purchasing a product or service? 

Last week, we discussed how green marketing can cater to different cultures.

In this same vein, the research we’re looking at this week identifies ways in which cultural values influence ethical consumption.

But first, let’s define what ‘ethical consumption’ actually is.

What is ‘Ethical Consumption’?

The study itself defines ethical consumption as involving 

“the rational use of resources, consideration of environmental impacts, and assertion of consumer rights in modern consumption patterns. Ethical consumption embodies social responsibility that is driven by an individual’s conscience and broader ethical consciousness.”

“the rational use of resources, consideration of environmental impacts, and assertion of consumer rights in modern consumption patterns. Ethical consumption embodies social responsibility that is driven by an individual’s conscience and broader ethical consciousness.”

In other words, your dollar is a vote cast on the way you’d like the world to be.

The Study

Engaging 938 subjects who were invited to participate in an online survey, this study unraveled the impact of diverse cultural orientations on two distinct dimensions: eco-friendly and socioeconomic-oriented consumption. 

Researchers asked themselves how vertical individualism, vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism, and horizontal collectivism might shape ethical consumption patterns?

Through text messages and emails, they reached out to individuals pre-registered with a marketing research company, tapping into the diverse perspectives of consumer panels. 

The study set out to examine the relationships between cultural values and ethical consumption in order to understand consumer behaviors.

Findings

The findings, revealed through structural equation modeling with EQS 6, painted a distinctive picture. 

Vertical individualism emerged as a silent observer, having no statistically significant effect on eco-friendly consumption.

This suggests that cultures emphasizing autonomy through competition and personal achievement may not align with eco-friendly ethical consumption. 

In contrast, horizontal individualism, horizontal collectivism, and vertical collectivism positively impacted both eco-friendly and socioeconomic-oriented consumption.

HI, with its focus on uniqueness and social equality, and VC, emphasizing sacrifice for group purposes, were associated with a propensity for consuming natural diets. 

HC, valuing equality and social harmony, also played a significant role in fostering eco-friendly consumption.

The study also highlighted the positive correlation between ethical consumption behaviors and consumer happiness. 

Specifically, cultures with strong HC tendencies exhibited robust eco-friendly ethical consumption behavior, indicating a link between cultural values and happiness. 

VC, HI, and VI cultures were also associated with eco-friendly consumption, though to varying degrees.

The study concludes by emphasizing the diversity within cultural frameworks, cautioning against oversimplifying a country’s culture into individualist or collectivist categories. 

It advocates for the utility of the two-dimensional cultural framework in understanding cultural diversity.

Going Green: How Culture Plays A Part In Green Marketing & Advertising Strategies

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“Go green, breathe clean.”

“If you cannot reuse, refuse.”

“Better environment, better tomorrow.”

These slogans may rhyme (sometimes), but do they stick with you?

That might depend on your culture.

As climate and the environment become an increasingly hot topic (no pun intended), green product advertisers face the challenge of both pushing consumers toward sustainable products and retaining public interest. 

In a world focusing more and more on sustainable consumption and production, driving change in consumers’ unsustainable habits is paramount. 

But for advertisers, a greener future is not yet clear.

Essential to clarifying it are the cultural underpinnings that shape consumers’ motives for buying and consumption. 

That’s where cultural research comes in.

This study dissects the role of cultural value orientation in environmental behavior, particularly in consumer preferences for green products.

Horizontal Individualism vs. Vertical Collectivism & Green Motivation

The primary goal of this study was to unravel the influence of horizontal individualism and vertical collectivism on consumers’ attitudes toward green products and their purchase intentions. 

The study also aimed to dissect the role of environmental responsibility as a mediator in the relationship between these cultural values and consumers’ green product attitudes.

Collecting data from two distinct cultures that represent both extremes – Pakistan (vertical collectivism) and Finland (horizontal individualism) – the study found that environmental responsibility connected positively with cultural values in both countries, showing a shared commitment to environmental protection.

And, in fact, environmental responsibility didn’t just play a supporting role; it was a full mediator in the relationship between cultural values and consumers’ attitudes towards green products. 

Consumers Believe in Their Role

Findings showed that consumers in both cultures believe they’re responsible for taking an active role in issues related to environmental protection, ultimately shaping positive attitudes towards green products.

The results encourage a shift in focus, with a recognition that HI and VC consumers harbor a unique sense of environmental responsibility that guides their choices. 

For the VC-Pakistan culture, embracing eco-consciousness can serve as a status symbol, appealing to their desire to display social status and fulfill in-group and family obligations. 

Marketers should weave these themes into their advertising messages to promote the purchase and consumption of green products.

In contrast, HI-Finland consumers seek uniqueness and self-reliance in their surroundings. 

Therefore, marketers targeting this group should craft messages that emphasize these merits, showcasing how green products can make them stand out and express self-reliance in environmental protection.

In order to advance their agenda, multinational companies should apply these findings, adapting their green marketing and advertising strategies to resonate with the prevailing cultural values in each country.

The larger implication is clear: to foster a greener future, green marketing and advertising should not merely rely on economic and status benefits but should also convey the importance of environmentally responsible consumption. 

Cause-related, socially responsible, environmentally friendly, and mindful consumption messages can ignite the demand for green products.

Are You Computer-Literate? Your Proficiency May Have Something to Do with Your Culture

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Does your culture impact your web skills?

How about the way you perceive web advertising?

Last week, we talked about what types of advertising appeal to horizontal and vertical cultures.

This week, we’ll take a closer look at cultural distinctions among web users, including individuals’ media consumption patterns, web proficiency, challenges faced, and their overall stance on web-based advertising.

Cultural Orientations

The conventional understanding of individualism and collectivism, typically framed as opposing concepts on a binary spectrum, warrants a more nuanced and comprehensive approach.

Recent research has shed light on the limitations of the conventional unidimensional viewpoint, leading to the emergence of a more intricate classification known as Vertical and Horizontal Individualism and Collectivism (Triandis, 1995, 2001). 

As we saw with the study last week, this four-fold classification framework offers a valuable instrument for investigating the potential role of cultural orientations in shaping people’s attitudes and behaviors towards media and persuasive communications.

This empirical study employs this four-fold classification to scrutinize cultural predispositions within an individualistic culture, coupled with people’s responses to persuasive communication on the Web.

The Study

In the course of an online survey administered to web users, this study’s findings reveal that these unique cultural orientations wield discernible effects on people’s perceived web skills and their attitudes toward web advertising, both in broad and specific contexts. 

Overall, respondents in the four groups shared similarities in media usage patterns and reported no significant differences in perceived challenges related to the Web. 

However, when it came to perceived Web skills, those with a strong horizontal individualistic orientation appeared to hold a perception of higher skill levels compared to the other groups. 

Web Advertising

What truly stands out is the intriguing revelation that individuals with diverse dominant cultural orientations indeed exhibit varying general attitudes toward Web advertising. 

Notably, the four groups also differed in their perceptions of the informativeness and entertainment value of Web advertising. 

Strikingly, those with a pronounced horizontal individualistic orientation tended to express more negative opinions regarding Web advertising, deeming it less informative and less entertaining than their counterparts.

The idea that individuals with high horizontal individualism may perceive Web advertising as targeting a mass audience rather than catering to their personal uniqueness is intriguing. 

These respondents also reported the highest Web skills among the groups, perhaps driven by their desire to control what they view on the Web and customize persuasive messages to satisfy their quest for individuality.

In sum, these findings underscore the pivotal role of cultural orientations in shaping consumer predispositions towards persuasive communications on the Web. 

In addition to individual attributes like Web skills and knowledge, cultural values and orientations can be regarded as a foundational and steadfast underpinning for shaping beliefs and attitudes. 

These cultural predispositions play a critical role in influencing an individual’s outlook on a wide range of topics, their motivations, objectives, and behaviors.

Culture & Loneliness: Are You More Prone to Loneliness Due to Your Culture?

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Does your culture make you lonely?

A study on loneliness and horizontal/vertical individualism and collectivism sought to uncover whether or not culture plays a role in feelings of loneliness.

The study represents a multinational exploration into the intricate dynamics of self-reported loneliness, taking into account the various dimensions of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism, while also considering the influence of age and gender across 28 distinct countries. 

As previously discussed, individualism-collectivism serves as a cultural dimension that illuminates an individual’s place within their social context. 

On a societal level, cultures characterized by high individualism typically feature individuals who perceive themselves as independent agents, valuing autonomy and personal freedom. 

Conversely, cultures marked by high collectivism emphasize group identity, harmony, and shared objectives, prioritizing the collective over personal achievement and goals. 

On an individual level, those with an individualistic orientation tend to define their self-concepts independently of the group, whereas collectivists perceive themselves as integral parts of their affiliated social groups, placing great importance on relationships within these groups.

Hypothetically, applying these self-construals to the concept of loneliness, it becomes plausible that individuals who adopt a more individualistic perspective, distancing themselves from the in-group, may be more prone to experiencing loneliness. 

Conversely, collectivists, who define themselves in relation to others, might have a lower propensity for loneliness. 

But is this what the research found?

The Study

Researchers explored the landscape of loneliness, considering the dimensions of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism, while also accounting for age and gender effects across 28 diverse countries. 

Their analysis yielded noteworthy results, shedding light on how these cultural dimensions influence self-reported loneliness.

For specific country samples, they observed distinct patterns. 

Horizontal-individualism displayed significant negative predictor weights in countries such as Brazil, Bulgaria, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Ukraine, and the overall sample. 

This suggests that individuals who reported feeling less autonomous and more unequal were more likely to endorse higher loneliness levels.

On the other hand, vertical-individualism exhibited significant positive predictor weights in the total sample, including Brazil, Japan, Russia, and Spain. 

These findings implied that those who felt more autonomous and unequal were more inclined to endorse loneliness-related items.

Turning to horizontal-collectivism, they found significant negative regression predictor weights in the overall sample, including Russia, Japan, and the United States. 

This indicated that individuals who perceived themselves as equal to others and as part of a community were less likely to report loneliness.

Conversely, vertical-collectivism displayed significant positive predictor regression weights in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Chile, Croatia, Latvia, Portugal, Romania, and the overall sample. 

This suggests that those who felt unequal to others, despite a sense of belonging to a community, were more likely to experience higher levels of loneliness.

These findings align with previous hypotheses related to individualism and loneliness, suggesting that value orientations linked to equality versus dominance play a crucial role in shaping an individual’s sense of connectedness. 

The concept of social inequality, whether within an individualistic or collectivistic framework, emerged as a critical factor in understanding loneliness. 

In societies marked by social inequality, feelings of distance from others, even within one’s own group, may contribute to loneliness, particularly in collectivist settings.

Moreover, the study hints at the relationship between social dominance orientation and loneliness, as individuals in more unequal societies may experience a sense of threat and strained self-esteem, potentially leading to loneliness. 

These intriguing results underscore a noteworthy pattern: individuals who prioritize egalitarian social relationships tend to report lower levels of loneliness, whereas those who embrace individuality and competitiveness are more likely to endorse loneliness-related items. 

These findings hold significance for professionals and researchers working with lonely individuals, emphasizing the critical role of perceived cultural influences in understanding and addressing this complex emotional state.

Relational Mobility, Part II: How Easily Does Your Culture Form New Relationships…And Abandon Existing Ones?

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How do you build relationships?

Do they last?

Last week, we discussed relational mobility – an aspect of the social environment that reflects how easily people of different cultures form new relationships and leave existing ones. 

The authors of six comprehensive studies encompassing both correlational and experimental designs unveiled significant findings regarding relational mobility in culture.

Let’s take a look at what they’ve found.

The Research

The research hypothesis of these collective studies centered on the notion that individuals residing in cultures characterized by diminished relational mobility would exhibit a heightened propensity for holistic thinking, emphasizing a broader focus on the surrounding social and physical context. 

Conversely, those in cultures marked by greater relational mobility would display more analytic thinking. 

To substantiate this proposition, the authors explored the disparities in relational mobility across culturally diverse regions, including the United States, Spain, Israel, Nigeria, and Morocco. 

Their findings revealed that variances in relational mobility predicted patterns of dispositional bias and the prevalence of holistic or analytic cognitive orientations.

Findings

Some of the greatest findings across these six studies are as follows:

  • Firstly, individuals in cultures characterized by higher relational mobility exhibited narrower attention spans towards their surrounding context and displayed increased dispositional biases. This was in stark contrast to individuals in cultures with lower relational mobility.
  • Secondly, the authors identified that relational mobility acted as a mediator, explaining the differences observed between these cultural groups in terms of cognitive tendencies.
  • Thirdly, the role of locus of control was explored as a mechanism underlying these within-culture effects. It was evident that individuals in high relational mobility environments tended to perceive greater control over their surroundings, particularly within the social realm.
  • Lastly, relational mobility exhibited a unique predictive power in elucidating why certain cultures leaned towards analytic or holistic cognitive orientations compared to other cultural constructs.

Relational Mobility Shapes Cognitive Behaviors

The degree of relational mobility in an environment, shaped by various factors like subsistence styles, historical threats, or sociopolitical systems, influences individuals’ proximal incentives and shapes their cognitive behaviors. 

In contexts with lower relational mobility, interdependence and adherence to social norms tend to dominate, driving individuals toward holistic thinking. 

Conversely, higher relational mobility settings foster independence and cultural looseness, encouraging analytic cognitive tendencies.

This research sheds light on how the degree of relational mobility in a society can profoundly impact the way people think, highlighting the interchange between socioecological factors and cognitive tendencies across diverse cultures.

Relational Mobility, Part I: How Easily Does Your Culture Form New Relationships…And Abandon Existing Ones?

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Do you find that you make friends easily?

How keen are you to keep them?

In some environments, people are inclined to maintain lifelong bonds with a select few, fostering enduring connections. 

Conversely, in certain social milieus, relationships and group affiliations form and dissolve with greater ease.

Here are a few examples of these contrasting communities.

Enduring Connections

The Japanese tradition of lifetime employment led many post-World War II businessmen to anticipate unwavering allegiance to their companies throughout their careers. 

Similarly, those residing in rural or secluded communities often take great pains to avoid being ostracized from established social networks, as alternative companions are relatively scarce in these close-knit societies.

While such contexts offer fewer chances to forge new relationships, they reciprocate with steadfast and dependable existing social ties.

Dissolving Connections

Those communities whose relationships dissolve with greater ease are frequently goal-oriented.

These transient social connections often arise out of mutual convenience, rendering them less stable and dependable. 

Take, for instance, professions like investment banking or consulting, particularly in countries like the United States, where these roles are frequently regarded as temporary due to demanding workloads or rigorous criteria for retention and advancement. 

Moreover, metropolitan areas characterized by reduced social constraints enable individuals to establish fresh connections and sever old ones without incurring significant social repercussions.

This all has to do with a culture’s relational mobility.

Relational Mobility

Relational mobility is an aspect of the social environment that reflects how easily people can form new relationships and leave existing ones.

Making friends at the drop of a hat is something that is as much cultural as it is a personality trait.

So is abandoning them at will.

The definition of friendship also differs across cultures, as we’ve discussed in a previous post.

Next week, we’ll take a look at a scientific study that dissects relational mobility and see how culture comes into play.

The Heart of Our Thinking Style: How Does Our Cultural Thinking Style Impact Our Heart Rate?

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How intimately connected are our brains and hearts?

This study on heart rate variability and analytic/holistic thinking styles delves into brain activity and neuro-visceral coordination.

Researchers specifically examined heart rate variability (HRV) in individuals exhibiting analytical and holistic thinking patterns, both during periods of rest and engagement in cognitive tasks.

Here’s what they found.

The Study

While both groups of analytical or holistic thinking styles exhibited similar success rates in resolving the cognitive challenges presented, the analytical cohort displayed prolonged response times compared to their holistic counterparts. 

The tasks presented were meticulously designed to contrast the analytic and holistic conditions, instructing participants to either focus solely on an object or consider the same object in relation to the field it was situated in.

Intriguingly, when participants were tasked with cognitive activities, heart rate complexity, as quantified by sample entropy, was notably higher among those with analytical thinking tendencies. 

However, no such difference emerged when participants were at rest or engaged in a straightforward motor task.

Fascinating Find: Context Means Everything

A particularly interesting finding was observed in analytical individuals when they evaluated objects concerning their relationship with the field, as opposed to objects without such contextual consideration.

During this specific task, analytical participants displayed both longer response times and heightened heart rate complexity. 

In contrast, the holistic group exhibited no significant variations in response times or heart rate complexity across different tasks.

These outcomes underscore that distinctions in individual behavior, including those tied to analytical and holistic thinking styles, are not limited solely to brain activity, as previously established through methods such as fMRI and EEG. 

Instead, this research reveals that these distinctions can extend to neuro-visceral coordination, as evidenced by variations in heart rate complexity.

Existing Elements Versus New

This study suggests that holistic thinkers might rely more on recombination of existing elements in their cognitive processes, while analytical thinkers lean towards generating new elements. 

This distinction in learning processes was mirrored in their heart rate complexities.

The results emphasize the variations between analytic and holistic thinkers in their physiological and behavioral responses, providing fresh perspectives on the interaction between cognitive strategies and physiological coordination during cognitive tasks. 

The authors suggest that further research in this realm could deepen our comprehension of the complex interchange between thought patterns and physiological responses, shedding light on the fundamental drivers of human behavior.

Contradiction, Categorization, and Change: Three Studies on Cultural Thinking Styles & How We View the World, Part II

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Does the way we think determine how we categorize things in our minds?

Does it influence how we view change?

Last week, we discussed analytic and holistic/dialectical thinking and how each thinking style views contradiction.

This week, we’ll take a look at two more studies on the subject – this time regarding categorization and change.

Categorization

Analytic thinkers are more likely to follow rule-based logic than dialectical thinkers are.

This is apparent in the way both groups categorize objects.

Studies in the early 2000s looked at how European American participants and Chinese and Korean participants categorize objects (Ji, Zhang, & Nisbett, 2004; Norenzayan, Smith, Kim, & Nisbett, 2002).

For instance, how would you logically pair a chicken, a cow, and grass?

Which two go together?

Americans more often than not paired the animals together, as they are more insistent on rule-based categorization, whereas East Asians were more likely than Americans to pair the cow with grass, since cows eat grass.

Americans were also more accurate about applying complex rules of categorization when instructed to do so.

Change

As mentioned in the previous post, analytic thinkers are linear thinkers.

They think in states of stability, not in states of flux.

Any states of change follow a linear trend.

Dialectical thinkers think in perpetual change and variability.

This way of thinking is described as follows:

“At the deepest level of Chinese philosophical thinking, ‘to be or not to be’ is not the question, because life is a constant state of passing from one stage of being to another, so that to be is not to be, and not to be is to be” (Peng & Nisbett, 1999, p. 743).

These different styles of thinking lead to different predictions.

One study demonstrated that while Americans take into account previous predictors to indicate future results, Chinese participants do not (Ji, Nisbett, & Su, 2001).

When given the scenario of whether a three-year chess champion would likely lose the next game against his strongest opponent, Americans proposed a 29% chance, while Chinese respondents proposed a 53% chance.

This linear versus cyclical view of change was also illustrated in a study on stocks (Ji, Zhang, & Guo, 2008).

While Canadians were more likely to sell falling stocks and buy rising stocks, Chinese participants did the opposite, selling rising stocks and buying falling stocks.

This counter-normative instinct is seen in professional investors too, with Canadian investors twice as likely to sell falling stocks as Chinese investors.

Contradiction, Categorization & Change

These studies illustrate how opposing thinking styles can color your perspective in so many different ways.

When viewing contradiction, when categorizing objects and groups, and when dealing with change in various capacities, our decisions are based on our thinking styles.

Keep this in mind when working with or managing in other cultures: There is no “one way” to see the world.